No home of wealth was complete without musical instruments, and owing to the exquisite paintings with which the case and top, both inside and out, were ornamented, the clavecin, harpsichord, or spinet was frequently the handsomest and costliest piece of furniture in the house. The case and legs were subject to changes in fashion. Sometimes the stand is simple with heavy ball feet connected by stretchers, as shown in Plate XXIII, a Lady Playing the Spinet, by J. M. Molenaer, in the Rijks Museum, Amsterdam. Sometimes the instrument stands on baluster legs and arches; and sometimes case and stand are of lacquer in the prevailing taste for the Chinese style. The top was always delicately painted, as shown in the picture just referred to; and it is interesting to note that in nearly every case where a lady is playing an instrument, she rests her foot upon a foot-warmer.

Without being able to see the internal mechanism, it is difficult to define the precursors of the pianoforte from their outward appearance in the pictures.

These instruments were so beautifully decorated that the clavecin-makers of Antwerp ranked as artists and became members of the St. Luke's Guild of that city. They were first enrolled as "painters and sculptors," and not as clavecin-makers.

According to a pamphlet entitled Recherches sur les Facteurs de Clavecins et les Luthiers d'Anvers, by the Chevalier Leon de Burbure (Brussels, 1863), at the end of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth centuries, the clavichord was in greater vogue than the clavecin, and about 1500 the clavecin had been made into the clavichord shape in Venice and called the spinet. The new form soon travelled to the Netherlands and superseded the clavichord.

PLATE XX. - Cabinet, or Armoire, by De Vries; Design for Goldsmith's Work, by Jerome Cock.

A clavecin-maker named Josse Carest or Joos Kerrest was admitted to the St. Luke's Guild as "a sculptor and painter of clavichords" as noted in De Liggeren en undere Historische Archieven der Antwerpsche Sint Lucasgilde, by Rombouts en van Lerius (Antwerp and The Hague, 1872), and another Carest had been admitted in 1519 as an apprentice painter of clavecins. In 1557, Josse Carest headed a petition of clavecin-makers to be admitted to the St. Luke's Guild as clavecin-makers and not as painters and sculptors. They were accepted. Their pupils and all who were subsequently admitted had to exhibit "master-works," namely: "clavecins that were oblong or with bent sides (square or grand, we should call them now) or to quote directly "viercante oft gehoecte clavisimbale." These had to be five feet long at least and made in the workshops of master-experts (two of whom were yearly elected) and to have the trade mark or device of the maker "syn eygen march teecken, oft wapene." This mark, known as rose, rosetta or rosace, usually made of gilded lead, was placed in the sound-holes.

The most famous clavecin-makers of Antwerp, and, indeed, of The Netherlands, were the Ruckers, who worked between 1579 and 1667, or later. The name is variously written. The most celebrated was Hans Ruckers, who was admitted a member of the St. Luke's Guild in 1579 as "Hans Ruyckers, clavisinbal makerre." His beautiful instruments were bought in France and England, as well as in the Low Countries; and it is thought that Queen Elizabeth owned one. In England they were called virginals. Many of the Ruckers' instruments are still in existence, owned by collectors and museums. The Museum of the Brussels Conservatory owns an oblong one, dated 1610. This has two keyboards, one above the other, and consists of 4 1/2 octaves, and white naturals. The Museum of the Paris Conservatory has one of 5 octaves, black naturals, and bent side, dated 1590; The Musee du Steen, Antwerp, owns an oblong one dated 1611; and Messrs. Chappell and Co., of London, have an undated oblong of 4 octaves. This stands on an arcade with six balusters and is decorated with fine paintings. A similar instrument on Plate XXIII a, by this maker, is in the Steinert collection at Yale University, U.S.A. It is a double spinet of four octaves. The painting on the lid represents the favourite Apollo and Marsyas contest.

Above, and below the movable spinet are painted landscapes with children dancing. The little spinet on the left, which sets into the spinet proper, is tuned one octave higher than the one on the right. In performing upon both instruments at once, the smaller instrument is removed and set upon a table. On the jack rails of both spinets may be read: "Johannes Rvqvers me fecit."

Martinus Vander Biest entered the St. Luke's Guild of Antwerp in 1558 as one of the ten clavecin-makers. An oblong clavecin, made by him in Antwerp is in the Museum at Nuremberg, and is signed and dated Martinus Vander Biest, 1580.

Hans Ruckers the younger, known as Jean, because he used the initials J. R. in his rose, was also a master in the St. Luke's Guild of Antwerp. He made beautiful instruments from 1617 to 1642. These were of both shapes, bent side and oblong, were furnished with one or two keyboards and were sometimes decorated with paintings in Vernis Martin. A beautiful example with two keyboards, 43/4 octaves, black naturals, owned by the Baroness James de Rothschild. The case and top are black and gold lacquer in the Chinese style, and the painting inside the top is said to be by Lancret. It is dated 1630 and inscribed "Joannes Ruckers me fecit, Antverpiae." Another by the same maker, also in a black and gold case, is owned by the South Kensington Museum. This is bent side, has one keyboard and is dated 1639. The Museum of the Paris Conservatory also owns a bent side clavecin, made by Jean Ruckers, of two keyboards and 5 octaves. This is painted outside by Teniers and Brouwer and inside by Breughel and Paul Bril. To him has also been attributed a spinet in the Cluny Museum with bent side, one keyboard, 4 1/2 octaves and blackwood case incrusted with ivory.

PLATE XXI. - Design for Goldsmith's Work, by Adrian Collaert.