Fig. 310. Portion of Illuminated Monogram; Book of Kells. (S).

Fig. 311. From the Epistle of Jerome; "Book of Durrow." (S).

The majority of the Anglo-Saxon manuscripts, if not written by Irish scribes in England, were either decorated or copied closely from the work of the latter. This is supported by some written testimony, but the ornamentation of the pages themselves are distinctly of Irish design.

A common feature in the illuminated pages of the books of the Middle Ages was the dividing of the pages into four compartments with ornamental borders, and each compartment holding the figure of a saint or symbols of the Evangelists, or having a miniature on the top half of the page and two small columns of text below.

Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts

Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts, with classical treatment of the figure designs, may be seen in the King's Library at the British Museum. The figures have the attenuated Byzantine character, with the linear treatment of the draperies, and with the long lobe-like forms which strongly mark the intended position of the limbs under the drapery; while others show the influence of the early Christian paintings of the catacombs at Rome and Naples.

The "Charter" of the foundation of Newminster at Winchester (966) and several "Gospels" in Latin of the eleventh century in the British Museum, are examples of the best kind of Anglo-Saxon illuminated manuscripts.

"Psalteries", "Gospels" And Botanical Works

"Psalteries", "Gospels" And Botanical Works known as "Herbals" were among the principal kinds of illustrated books, which were executed in considerable numbers during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The text in these books was usually in solid columns, neatly written in a kind of half-uncial letter in Latin, with large initials and surrounded by broad borders, having little scrolls and trefoil leaves or flowers in which four or six miniatures were placed at intervals. Some pages had the upper half or more occupied by a miniature and had less text, but nearly always there were the accompanying delicate borders designed with great spirit and freedom, and consisting of ornament made up of leaves, flowers, fruit, stems, lines, and spirals, executed on the vellum ground in bright colours and burnished gold.

A characteristic of some of the missals of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was the calendar pages at the beginning of the book. The pages which contained the calendar had also, in some cases, miniatures in the borders representing the seasons.

The Bedford Missal

The Bedford Missal (1442), in the British Museum, is a good example of the best French book decoration of that period. It contains a calendar, and was the work of a French artist, though executed in England.

Towards the end of the fifteenth century the miniature began to assume more importance and to occupy the whole of the page. The borders had become more realistic in treatment; foliage, flowers, and insects were rendered almost naturally on gold or coloured grounds, with cast shadows, so as to give the utmost relief.

This treatment was not an improvement on the former flat Gothic style, as it tended to lead to shadowy and meretricious work.

Two of the very finest books of this period are the "Romance of the Rose," in the British Museum, and the Grimani "Breviary" in St. Mark's, Venice. In the latter magnificent book some of the miniatures are ascribed to the Flemish artist Memling.

The miniatures of the splendid choir books of Siena Cathedral are the masterly designs of Girolamo da Cremona and Liberale da Verona, who were famous at this kind of work. The quantity, variety, and purely Italian character of the decoration of these books would almost be sufficient to form a school of Renaissance art in itself.

With the invention of printing a great change came about in the production of decorated books; but it is curious to note that, for a long time after, in order to produce a book it was thought necessary by the means of woodcuts and type to imitate the illuminated missals of the former times.

A good illustration of this may be seen in the woodcut blocks from the recently discovered Sarum Missal (Figs. 312, 313). This very important acquisition to the list of Caxton's works was found in 1893, in Lord Newton's library at Lyme Hall, Cheshire, and is one of the works which Caxton sent to be printed in France. It contains some additions to the text in Caxton's handwriting and has an impression of his peculiar mark at the end of the book.

The illustrations have been printed from wood blocks, and coloured by hand afterwards, according to the practice which obtained at the latter end of the fifteenth century.

Another interesting survival of the practice of placing a cross at the bottom of the page, on which was represented the crucifixion, is seen underneath the latter illustration (Fig. 313) in the Lyme Missal. In the earlier illuminated missals this device was resorted to in order to keep the picture of the crucifixion from being damaged by the frequent kissing of the cross; and so a small cross was placed at the bottom of the picture to enable the piously inclined to still perform this act of piety without damage to the book.

The custom of engraving blocks for book illustration in outline, to be filled in afterwards in colour, led the way to line engraving on wood, where the pure line work was left uncoloured, and soon after became a style by itself, which ultimately, as the art of black and white, was sought after and prized for its own sake.

The invention of printing from type may be traced from the woodcuts, as we have remarked above, some of the earliest of which were those cut for playing cards at the beginning of the fifteenth century.